Chemistry Ii For Dummies Pdf Free Download
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Part I
A Basic Review of Chemistry I
In this part . . .
In this part, I requite yous a basic review of those topics commonly institute in a Chem I course that I feel are disquisitional to your progression through the Chem II concepts. I review the really basic concepts of science and chemical science in Chapter one. In Chapter two, I give y'all a quick review of chemic calculations. I bear witness you how to utilise the factor label method of calculations, forth with an introduction to the SI (metric) organisation.
In Chapter iii, I requite a review of atomic structure, the periodic table, and the different types of bonding. I don't cover topics in great depth here, merely just plenty to jog your memory almost energy level configurations, periodicity, and bonding. In Chapter 4, I provide you a good review of reaction stoichiometry considering you'll really need these mole-related concepts in Chem II.
In Affiliate v, I review solutions and solution concentration units. I also bear upon the different types of intermolecular forces and the backdrop of liquids. In the last review chapter, I review the backdrop of gases including the gas laws (Boyle's law, Charles's constabulary, Gay-Lussac's law, the combined gas police, the ideal gas constabulary, Avogadro's police force, and more than). That's information technology — six chapters of review of a form it took you full year if yous're in high school or a full semester if y'all're in college to consummate.
Affiliate 1
I Passed Chem I, Just What About Chem Two?
In This Chapter
Comprehending chemical science
Discovering science and technology
Examining the full general areas of chemical science
You lot already know what chemical science is. You lot passed your first year of loftier school or your commencement semester of college chemistry. Now y'all're prepare to accept on your second yr or second semester, and you want a resource to assistance yous explain concepts in evidently English. This chapter sets the phase for the residual of the book by showing you what the differences are between Chem I and Chem II so that you lot can relate meliorate to this new material. It likewise relates some of the major areas of chemistry to the topics you'll be studying in Chemistry Two. If y'all're already in the midst of a Chem II higher or high schoolhouse class, y'all may desire to skim over this chapter for a quick review of some bones concepts so go right to the subject area area in the book that is troubling you.
If you bought this volume just to have fun discovering something new and aren't taking a chemical science grade, you may need a little refresher on the really central chemical topics. I suggest buying a re-create of the starting time book in this series, Chemical science For Dummies. That book, now in its second edition, can give you the basics and make this book more meaningful.
Instruction chemistry is very enjoyable. For me, it's more than just a collection of facts and a trunk of noesis. Although I wasn't a chemistry major when I entered college, I rapidly became hooked when I took my commencement chemistry course. The bailiwick seemed so interesting and and so logical. Watching chemical changes take place, figuring out unknowns, using instruments, extending my senses, and making predictions to effigy out why they were right and wrong all seems so fascinating. Your journey into Chem Two starts here.
Grasping the Nature of Chemistry Ii
Chem I, in about schools, is a mixture of a lot of different topics. You lot naturally find some carryover between topics; y'all finish the affiliate on gases and simply briefly cover those topics again, until you hit the final examination. Your Chemical science II class is more consequent in these topics. Chem II is besides much more mathematical than Chem I, which was great for me considering I always enjoyed the quantitative aspects of chemistry more than the descriptive part. That's why I am an analytical chemist instead of an organic pharmacist. I savour working with numbers.
The following sections give you a quick reminder at the content in a typical Chem I course and and so bear witness y'all what to look in a typical Chem II class that you are or might be taking.
Recapping general Chemistry I
In your start couple of weeks in your Chemistry II class, you probably will review the nuts of what you covered in your Chemistry I class. I dedicate the capacity in Part I of Chemistry 2 For Dummies to these topics to help yous review these important topics. Here are the topics y'all can find:
Problem solving: The metric or SI system is essential to studying chemical science at whatsoever level. Y'all need to be able to utilize the factor-label method of problem solving, also called unit assay. This method allows you to manipulate units to generate the fix-up for a particular problem. About this same time you become proficient in determining the number of pregnant figures you should written report in your concluding answer. Refer to Chapter 2 for more information.
Atomic structure: Having a firm understanding of subatomic particles (protons, electrons, and neutrons), the nucleus, and the electron clouds is of import when taking a chemistry grade. Chapter three gives you an overview of these topics. You lot can besides find data on electron configurations (the way to represent the various electrons in an atom), average atomic masses, and the mole concept. For an overview of these topics, run into Chapters 3 and 4.
The Periodic Tabular array and periodic properties: Chemistry I gave y'all the nuts on electron configurations, ionization energies, sizes of atoms, and a host of other topics related to the periodic table. You definitely need this knowledge when studying Chem Two. Chapter 3 gives you lot a brief overview.
Bonding: Chemic bonding, both ionic and covalent, form an important part of Chem I. Having a firm foundation on these topics is also important in Chem II. See Chapter 3 for a review.
Molecules, compounds, and chemical equations: Here is where chemical nomenclature was commencement introduced in your Chem I class. You may recollect discussing chemical formulas, chemical names, and vice versa. Calculating tooth masses and determining the empirical formula from percentage data is as well of import. You also figured out how to balance chemical equations. Chemic nomenclature is an absolute necessity of Chemistry Ii as well every bit the balancing of chemical equations and the conclusion of molar masses. For a review, refer to Chapter 4.
Reaction stoichiometry: You probably retrieve that this topic was a chief crux of your Chem I course. You learned how to calculate how much — how much reactant, how much produce, how many moles, how many grams, and how many particles. Balanced chemic equations go hand in paw to permit you to exercise these calculations. You also focused on the basic reaction types and sometimes fifty-fifty a little solution stoichiometry. The reaction stoichiometry and the mole concept are of principal importance in Chem II. Flip to Chapter iv to ensure you have a proficient understanding of these topics.
Solutions: More than than probable you studied solution concentration units, especially molarity and molality, in your Chem I class. Solution concentrations are extremely important in Chem 2. Refer to Affiliate 5 for a review.
Gas properties: Many textbooks and Chem I instructors embrace the properties of gases, including numerous gas laws and the kinetic molecular theory. Understanding the kinetic molecular theory likewise makes it easier to see how the diverse factors touch on the kinetics of a reaction in Chem II. Check out Affiliate vi for more info.
Nuclear chemical science: Some instructors cover nuclear chemistry every bit part of the Chem I curriculum; some encompass it in Chem Ii. Chapter 17 touches on what y'all need to know.
If y'all desire more in-depth explanation of these topics, you tin check out my book, Chemical science For Dummies, 2nd Edition (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
Looking to where you are now: Full general Chemistry II
In Chem Two you can expect to encounter the following topics, but not necessarily in this verbal gild:
Chemical kinetics: A Chemistry II class unremarkably covers this topic early later you finish reviewing the topics of Chem I. Kinetics is the study of the speed of reactions. Along with kinetics reaction mechanisms, the series of steps a reaction proceeds through in going from reactants to products is included. Affiliate 7 covers kinetics.
Chemic equilibrium: This is the largest topic in most Chem Ii classes. An eastquilibrium is established when a chemical reaction goes from reactants to products and at the same time is also proceeding from products to reacts. These ii reactions occur at the same reaction charge per unit (speed). You can uncover all the dissimilar types of equilibriums: homogeneous, heterogeneous, acrid-base, solubility, and circuitous-ion. You can besides find out near means to manipulate the equilibrium system so as to course as much product equally possible. I discuss equilibrium in Chapters 8, ix, and ten.
Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is another important topic of Chemistry 2. Thermodynamics is basically the study of energy transfer. It builds on the thermochemistry concepts of Chem I, but it has the goal of existence able to predict under what conditions a reaction is spontaneous. Affiliate 11 covers thermodynamics.
Electrochemistry: The study of batteries and cells besides appears in Chem Ii. You figure out how to balance redox reaction and and then motion on to electrochemical cells. You discover all about cells and batteries, including auto batteries and flashlight cells. Affiliate 12 explains electrochemistry in more depth.
Radioactive decay: Chemistry II classes sometimes embrace this topic. Sometimes Chemistry I classes cover information technology. Radioactivity essentially is the spontaneous decay of an unstable nucleus to a more stable ane. This is the stuff of atomic bombs and nuclear power plants. Chapter 17 discusses radioactive decay, half-lives, fission, and fusion.
Other topics: Some instructors besides encompass organic chemistry and biochemistry. I encompass these topics in Chapters thirteen through 15.
Examining the Branches of Chemistry
As yous get through your Chemisty II course, yous may really starting time to wonder what chemists do all 24-hour interval. Well, some make things (synthesis), others examine the properties of things (analysis), and others explicate things (teach). But all chemists have a specialty area in which they have received more training. The post-obit describes the full general areas of chemistry.
Concrete chemistry: This branch figures out how and why a chemical organisation behaves as it does. Physical chemists study the concrete properties and behavior of thing and attempt to develop models and theories that describe this behavior. Specially proceed this branch in mind when you lot're studying thermodynamics in Chapter xi.
Analytical chemical science: This branch is highly involved in the determination of the properties of a substance (analysis). Chemists from this field of chemical science may exist trying to find out what substances are in a mixture (qualitative analysis) or how much of a particular substance is nowadays (quantitative analysis) in something. Analytical chemists typically piece of work in industry in product development or quality control. If a chemical manufacturing process goes wrong and is costing that industry hundreds of thousands of dollars an hr, that quality command chemist is nether a lot of pressure to fix it and fix it fast. A lot of instrumentation is used in belittling chemistry. Chapter 12, electrochemistry, is a typical topic studied by analytical chemists.
Inorganic chemical science: This co-operative is involved in the study of inorganic compounds such every bit salts. Information technology includes the written report of the construction and properties of these compounds. It also commonly involves the study of the individual elements of the compounds. Inorganic chemists probably say that this field is the study of everything except carbon, which they leave to the organic chemists. Inorganic chemists are interested in the descriptive chemical science of the elements.
Organic chemistry: This field is the study of carbon and its compounds. It's probably the most organized of the areas of chemical science — with good reason. At that place are millions of organic compounds, with thousands more discovered or created each year. Industries such as the polymer manufacture, the petrochemical industry, and the pharmaceutical industry depend on organic chemists. Capacity 13 and xiv depict aspects of organic chemistry. Much more about organic chemistry can be institute in Organic Chemistry II For Dummies (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
Biochemistry: This co-operative specializes in living organisms and systems. Biochemists study the chemical reactions that occur at the molecular level of an organism — the level where items are then minor that people tin't direct run across them. Biochemists study processes such equally digestion, metabolism, reproduction, respiration, and so on. Sometimes, distinguishing between a biochemist and a molecular biologist is difficult because they both study living systems at a microscopic level. However, a biochemist really concentrates more on the reactions that are occurring. Check out Chapter 15 for a taste of biochemistry, but for a full meal come across my book Biochemistry For Dummies (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
Biotechnology: This is a relatively new surface area of science that is commonly placed with chemistry. It's the application of biochemistry and biology when creating or modifying genetic material or organisms for specific purposes. It's used in such areas as cloning and the creation of disease-resistant crops, and it has the potential for eliminating genetic diseases in the hereafter. I also suggest yous check out my book Biochemistry For Dummies (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) for more than information.
Comparison Macroscopic versus Microscopic Viewpoints
As you go through your chemistry form, pay attending to the way your instructor shifts from talking about affair in terms of atoms and molecules and then shifts very naturally into the physical earth of grams and kilograms. These two viewpoints are chosen the microscopic viewpoint and the macroscopic viewpoint. Nigh all chemists, no matter what field they study, study the world around them in two ways:
Macroscopic view: This view is what you see, feel, and touch. This is the world of dirty lab coats — of mixing solutions and weighing out elements. This viewpoint is the world of experiments, or what some nonscientists phone call the existent world.
Microscopic view: This view focuses on piece of work with models and theories. Chemists may describe a chemical reaction, such every bit the Haber reaction to produce ammonia, in terms of individual atoms and molecules. This is the microscopic world.
Scientists are frequently so used to going back and forth betwixt the two views that they don't even realize that they're doing so. An occurrence or ascertainment in the macroscopic world generates an idea related to the microscopic earth, and vice versa. Y'all may find this menses of ideas disconcerting at first. Y'all may have noticed this back and forth some in your Chemical science I studies; you'll discover it more in your Chemistry II studies. You may need some adjusting to it earlier moving back and forth becomes 2d nature to you lot.
Contrasting pure and practical chemistry
In pure chemistry, chemists are free to carry out any inquiry interests them — or whatever research they tin can get funded. In that location is no real expectation of applied application at this point. The researcher simply wants to know for the sake of noesis. This type of inquiry (ofttimes called basic inquiry) is nearly commonly conducted at colleges and universities. The chemist uses undergraduate and graduate students to assistance conduct the enquiry. The work becomes part of the students' professional training. The researcher publishes his or her results in professional journals for other chemists to examine and attempt to refute. Funding is near ever a problem, considering the experimentation, chemicals, and equipment are quite expensive.
In applied chemistry, chemists normally work for private corporations. Their research is directed toward a very specific short-term goal set by the visitor — product improvement or the evolution of a new plastic or medicine, for instance. Normally, more coin is available for equipment and instrumentation with practical chemistry, but the chemists besides have the pressure of coming together the visitor'due south goals.
These two types of chemical science, pure and practical, share the same basic differences as science and applied science. In scientific discipline, the goal is simply the bones conquering of knowledge. There doesn't need to be whatsoever apparent practical application. Scientific discipline is simply knowledge for knowledge'south sake. Technology is the application of science toward a very specific goal.
Society has a place for science and technology — likewise for the two types of chemistry. The pure chemist generates data and information that is and so used past the applied pharmacist. Both types of chemists have their own sets of strengths, problems, and pressures. In fact, because of the dwindling federal enquiry dollars, many universities are becoming much more than involved in gaining patents, and they're being paid for applied science transfers into the individual sector.
Chapter 2
Math for the (Chemistry) Masses
In This Chapter
Feeling out the SI measurement arrangement
Working with numbers, both really big or small-scale
Using the quadratic equation to solve problems
Figuring out unit conversions
Getting comfortable with significant figures
Congratulations. Y'all made it through Chemistry I. You probably remember that chemistry has a lot of calculations. Guess what? Chemistry II has a lot more calculations than Chemical science I. The good news: I am confident y'all can handle these calculations, which include more arithmetic and elementary algebra. You also need to be able to use the quadratic equation and be able to do a few more calculator functions.
Because y'all rely heavily on the SI system, exponential notation, and the unit conversion method, I focus on reviewing these concepts in this affiliate. I also affect a quick review of pregnant figures and rounding off. Nigh of these concepts should exist review. Reading this chapter or parts of this chapter that you demand to review tin can bring you up to speed for Chemical science Two.
Digging Through the SI Measurement Organisation
The SI system is a decimal system. It has base units for mass, length, volume, and and so on. You utilise the SI system in nearly all calculations you make in chemistry. You probably used it a lot in your Chemistry I class, and you lot'll utilize it probably even more in your Chemistry II course. This section lists the most mutual SI prefixes, base units for physical quantities in the SI system, and some useful SI-English conversions.
The English used the English organisation of weights and measures. The The states colonies and and so the U.s. adopted information technology. The US arrangement uses pounds and ounces, gallons and quarts, and miles and yards with all kinds of weird conversions between them. The metric system (SI system) is much easier to use, and then much in fact that the English have abandoned their own organization and use the metric system now. The and then-chosen English system is now called the US customary organisation, because the Usa is but about the only country that nonetheless uses it. The decimal-based SI system is much easier for scientists to use and is understood worldwide.
Figuring out what SI prefixes mean
The prefixes modify the base of operations units and tell you how much of an item is in question. For example, kilo- means 1,000; a kilogram is i,000 grams, and a kilometer is 1,000 meters.
Employ Table ii-1 as a handy reference for the abbreviations and meanings of some of the nearly commonly used SI prefixes.
Table 2-1 Selected SI Prefixes
Length
The base unit for length in the SI system is the meter. The exact definition of meter has changed over the years, but it's at present defined equally the altitude that low-cal travels in a vacuum in one/299,792,458 of a second. The most common SI units of length that you lot volition encounter are:
millimeter (mm)
centimeter (cm)
meter (k)
kilometer (km)
Some common length conversions from the English system to the SI system are
1 mile (mi) = 1.61 kilometers (km)
1 yard (yd) = 0.914 meters (thousand)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
I find the inch/cm conversion to be the most useful because many of the problems I deal with fall into that length range. I suggest you discover the i that works best for you.
Mass
The base unit for mass in the SI system is the kilogram. It'southward the weight of the standard platinum-iridium bar plant at the International Agency of Weights and Measures. Here are the most common SI units of mass you will encounter:
milligram (mg)
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
Some common English to SI organization mass conversions are
one pound (lb) = 453.half-dozen grams (g)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.four grams (1000)
I find the lb/yard conversion to be the most useful because many of the problems I piece of work with fall into this range.
Volume
The base unit of measurement for volume in the SI system is the cubic meter; however, chemists unremarkably utilise the liter. They practice so considering it'south customary for graduated glassware used in chemistry to be in milliliters or liters, unlike medical instruments such equally syringes that are in cc's (cm³). A liter is 0.001 1000³. Here are the nearly common SI units of book:
1 milliliter (mL) = one cubic centimeter (cm³ or cc)
1 liter (L) = one,000 milliliters (mL)
Some common English to SI system volume conversions are
ane quart (qt) = 0.946 liters (50)
one fluid ounce (fl oz) = 29.6 milliliters (mL)
1 gallon (gal) = iii.79 liters (L)
I find the qt/50 conversion to be the about useful because again it fits improve with virtually metric to English conversion that I do.
Temperature
The base of operations unit of measurement for temperature in the SI system is Kelvin. Here are the three major temperature conversion formulas:
Celsius to Fahrenheit: °F = (9/5)°C + 32
Fahrenheit to Celsius: °C = (v/9)(°F–32)
Celsius to Kelvin: K = °C + 273
Force per unit area
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, where 1 pascal equals 1 newton per square meter. Just pressure tin also be expressed in a number of dissimilar means, and then here are the nigh common pressure conversions:
i millimeter of mercury (mm Hg) = one torr
i atmosphere (atm) = 760 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) = 760 torr
1 atmosphere (atm) = 101 kilopascals (kPa)
i barr = 10⁵ Pa
Free energy
The SI unit for energy (such as heat) is the joule, but many chemists and chemistry professors however use the metric unit of oestrus, the calorie, considering it still is used extensively in the popular and chemic literature. Here are some common energy conversions:
1 calorie (cal) = four.184 joules (J)
1 Nutritional (food) Calorie (Cal) = 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4,184 joules (J)
Dealing With Numbers, Both Really Big or Small
Chemists piece of work with very large and very small numbers on a daily basis. For example, when chemists talk nearly the number of ions in a gram of table salt, they're talking almost a very, very big number. Merely when they talk well-nigh the bore of a single sodium cation, they're talking most a very, very small number. As you found in Chem I, chemists tin can employ exponential or scientific note to stand for these large or small-scale numbers. These sections review the ways you can handle very large and small numbers and then y'all're gear up for them in Chem II.
Using exponential and scientific notation
In exponential notation, a number is represented as a value raised to a power of ten. The decimal bespeak can be located anywhere within the number as long as the power of ten is correct. In scientific annotation, the decimal point is e'er located between the first and second digit — and the first digit must be a number other than zero.
For instance, the number 328,000 could be represented a 3.28 x ten⁵ while 0.0054 would equal five.4 10 10-3.
Using addition and subtraction
To add or decrease numbers in exponential or scientific notation, both numbers must have the same power of ten. If they don't, you must convert them to the same power. Hither's a subtraction example:
(two.5 × 10⁵ cm) – (ii.two × x⁴ cm) = (25 × 10⁴ cm) – (two.two × ten⁴ cm) =
22.7 × 10⁴ cm (exponential notation) = two.27 × 10³ cm (scientific notation)
Y'all perform the addition exactly the aforementioned way.
Multiplication and sectionalization
To multiply numbers expressed in exponential notation, multiply the coefficients (the numbers) and add the exponents (powers of ten):
(ii.25 × x–2 cm) × (iii.37 × x–five cm) = (ii.25 × three.37) × 10(–ii + –5) cm²
= vii.58 × x–7 cm²
To divide numbers expressed in exponential annotation, divide the coefficients and decrease the exponent of the denominator from the exponent of the numerator:
(vi.27 × ten⁵ k) ÷ (1.25 × x³ mL) = (half dozen.27 ÷ 1.25) × x⁵–³ chiliad/mL = 5.02 × 10² thou/mL
Raising a number to a power
To enhance a number in exponential notation to a certain ability, raise the coefficient to the ability and then multiply the exponent by the power:
(2.33 × 10–5cm)³ = (2.33)³ × x–5 × ³ cm³ = 12.six × 10–xv cm³ = 1.26 × ten–14 cm³
Using a estimator
Scientific calculators make doing calculations much easier. You don't have to focus equally much time on the actual calculations and tin can spend more fourth dimension on the trouble itself.
You lot can utilize a calculator to add and subtract numbers in exponential annotation without commencement converting them to the aforementioned power of 10. Simply be conscientious that you correctly enter the exponential numbers.
For example, assume that your computer has a key labeled EXP. The EXP stands for ×10. After you lot press the EXP primal, you enter the ability. For instance, to enter the number 6.25 × x³, you type 6.25, press the EXP cardinal, and then type 3.
What virtually a negative exponent? If you want to enter the number half dozen.05 × 10–12, you blazon 6.05, press the EXP cardinal, blazon 12, then press the +/– key.
When using a scientific calculator, don't enter the × 10 part of your exponential number. Printing the EXP fundamental to enter this part of the number.
Solving the Quadratic Equation
When you get into the sections on equilibriums, you may need to solve the quadratic equation. The quadratic equation is a way for solving second degree equations of the class ax² + bx + c = 0. If you're not familiar with it from your algebra class, you may want to practise some reviewing using your textbook or the Internet.
Hither I requite yous some tips and then that y'all tin can minimize this experience, but you won't exist able to avert it entirely. If it has been a while since you worked with this equation, utilize the following example as a refresher to castor upward on this mathematical solution process.
The quadratic equation is useful in solving problems similar this:
2x² + 5ten = 52 can exist rearranged to 2x² + vx – 52 = 0
The quadratic equation is of the form:
where in this case a = two, b = 5, and c = –52. Substituting the values into the equation gives:
Only one value is going to take any significance in the real earth. Many times x is a concentration and you can't have a negative concentration. Concentrations might be pocket-sized, but not less than zip.
Mastering the Unit Conversion Method
You lot have probably found that actually setting up chemical science bug to solve them is sometimes hazy or unclear. A scientific calculator can help you by handling the math, merely a calculator can't tell you what mathematical operations you need to perform.
That'southward where the unit conversion method, sometimes chosen the factor characterization method, comes into play. This method can help you gear up up chemistry problems and summate them correctly. Hopefully you got familiar with it in Chem I, but a brief review shouldn't hurt.
2 basic rules are associated with the unit conversion method:
Dominion 1: Ever write the unit of measurement and the number associated with the unit. Rarely in chemistry will y'all have a number without a unit of measurement. Pi is the major exception that comes to mind.
Rule 2: Carry out mathematical operations with the units, canceling them until you end up with the unit yous want in the concluding respond. In every footstep, y'all must have a right mathematical statement.
This case may stimulate your recall of the unit conversion method. A firkin is a little known unit of measurement of volume in the U.Due south. Customary System. A firkin is equal to nine.0 gallons. How many liters are in one firkin? You demand to solve for liters/firkin, so follow these steps:
1. Write down what you lot commencement with:
Annotation that per Rule #ane, the equation shows the unit and the number associated with it.
2. Catechumen gallons to quarts, canceling the unit of gallons per Rule #2:
3. Convert quarts to liters:
4. At present that you have the units of liters per firkin, do the math to become the answer:
34 L/firkin
five. Terminate and ask yourself whether the answer is reasonable.
Nine gallons would contain 36 quarts and a liter is approximately a quart, and so that the reply should be around 36 L. The answer is reasonable and has the right units.
Notation that the answer has been rounded off to the correct number of significant figures. If you lot're a little rusty with pregnant figures, the side by side section gives you details on how to do so.
Note that although the setup of the preceding example is correct, it's certainly not the only correct setup. Depending on what conversion factors you know and utilize, there may exist many correct ways to set upward a problem and get the right answer. With a little practise, you can really capeesh and similar the unit conversion method. It got me through my introductory physics course.
Working with Significant Figures
Meaning figures (no, I'one thousand not talking about Donald Trump's net worth) are the number of digits that you report in the final answer of the mathematical trouble you are calculating. The number of the significant figures is express by the accuracy of the measurement. The post-obit sections explain how to make up one's mind the number of significant figures
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